Kashmir's Enduring Legacy: A Historical Analysis of Administrative, Agricultural, and Cultural Evolution (Pre-1947)

Kashmir’s history is a tale of resilience, cultural transformation, and evolving governance. Over the centuries, various empires and dynasties shaped its political and economic landscape. The early history of Kashmir was deeply influenced by Hinduism and Buddhism, with the valley emerging as a renowned center for learning and culture. The Karkota dynasty, which ruled from the 7th to the 9th century, played a crucial role in shaping Kashmiri architecture, art, and governance, leaving behind a legacy of scholarship and monumental structures.

In 1752, the Durrani Empire of Afghanistan, under Ahmad Shah Abdali, took control of Kashmir. Afghan rule was harsh and exploitative, characterized by heavy taxation, oppressive policies, and administrative mismanagement. The Afghan governors were notorious for their brutality, causing immense suffering among the local population, particularly the Muslim majority, who faced severe persecution. Resentment ran deep, and the people longed for relief from years of hardship.

That relief seemed to come in 1819 when the Sikh Empire, led by Maharaja Ranjit Singh, defeated the Afghans and annexed Kashmir. However, Sikh rule brought its own challenges. While some administrative reforms were introduced, governance was marked by high taxation, forced labor, and restrictions on religious practices. The Muslim population, in particular, bore the brunt of these policies, fueling widespread discontent. For many Kashmiris, the shift from Afghan to Sikh rule offered little improvement in their daily lives.

After the First Anglo-Sikh War in 1846, the British defeated the Sikhs and, through the Treaty of Amritsar, sold Kashmir to Maharaja Gulab Singh of Jammu, establishing Dogra rule. The Dogras implemented significant administrative reforms, introducing land revenue settlements, military organization, and infrastructure development. The region was divided into three main administrative units: the Kashmir Valley, Jammu, and Ladakh, with the valley itself further divided into thirty-four smaller administrative units known as parganas. Trade routes were expanded, and roads, bridges, and irrigation systems were built to modernize the economy.

Despite these administrative changes and infrastructural developments, economic hardship and social inequalities persisted. The burden of taxation, coupled with the lack of significant improvements in living conditions for the majority of the population, fueled growing resentment. While Dogra rule modernized certain aspects of governance, it also deepened existing divisions, setting the stage for the social and political movements that would emerge in the early 20th century.

Administrative Structure and Reorganization

The Kashmir Valley has undergone significant administrative restructuring over time. Initially, Gurais Valley was part of Gilgit province, but after extensive surveys and assessments, it was integrated into the newly formed Sopur Tahsil. The reorganization of administrative divisions was guided by two key principles:

1. Ensuring that each irrigation system remained under a single tahsildar’s jurisdiction.
2. Using the Jhelum River as a natural boundary to define tahsils.

Historically, Kashmir was divided into two primary regions:

• Maráj (South)
• Kámráj (North)

According to ancient lore, the historical bifurcation of Kashmir into two distinct regions is attributed to a legendary tale of fraternal rivalry between two brothers, Marhan and Kaman. As the narrative goes, the brothers engaged in a fierce struggle for dominance over the region, ultimately resulting in a territorial division.

The outcome of this struggle saw Kaman emerging victorious, claiming the area below Srinagar as his domain, which came to be known as Kamanráj. Conversely, Marhan ruled over the upper region, dubbed Marbanráj. As the annals of time passed, these names underwent a transformation, evolving into Kámráj (North Kashmir) and Maráj (South Kashmir).

Despite the passage of centuries and subsequent administrative reorganizations, these historical divisions persisted, deeply ingraining themselves in local culture and identity. The dialects spoken in Maráj and Kámráj also developed distinct characteristics, differing from each other and from the dialect spoken in Yámráj, the ancient name for Srinagar.

This enduring legacy of the fraternal rivalry continues to shape the region's cultural landscape, serving as a poignant reminder of Kashmir's rich history and heritage. The tale of Marhan and Kaman has become an integral part of Kashmir's folklore, symbolizing the region's complex and multifaceted identity.

Beyond the two primary divisions of Kámráj and Maráj, Kashmir's historical landscape was further characterized by thirty-four smaller, intricately defined subdivisions. Notably, despite the introduction of new administrative boundaries by State authorities, local identities remained deeply rooted in historical continuity. For instance, the residents of Ranbir Singhpura Tahsil continued to identify themselves as belonging to Shahabad and Brang even after generations of administrative changes. This enduring connection to historic regions underscores the significance of cultural heritage in shaping local identities.

Over the years, Kashmir’s administrative divisions evolved:

• 1871: Divided into five wazárats (districts): Srinagar, Patan, Anantnág, Kámráj, and Shupiyon, further split into 37 tahsils.
• 1887: Reduced to four districts: Srinagar, Haripur (Shupiyon), Kámráj, and Anantnág, containing 28 tahsils and 2,487 villages.

The Hákim-i-Ala (Governor of Kashmir) governed the Kashmir Valley, overseeing three wazárats and eleven tahsils, along with the administration of Gilgit, Astor, and Muzzafarabad. Meanwhile, the Hákim-i-Ala of Jammu exercised authority over Ladakh and Skardu, maintaining a separate administrative structure. This division of governance reflected the region’s vast and diverse geography, requiring distinct administrative approaches for the valley, mountainous regions, and frontier territories.

Notably, while official administrative reports primarily focused on the Kashmir Valley, they often excluded Muzzafarabad, Gilgit, and Astor, reflecting the evolving political and strategic priorities of the time. These exclusions suggest that while these areas were under Kashmiri administration, they held a different status within the larger framework of governance. Over time, these administrative boundaries continued to shift, influenced by political developments, regional conflicts, and the strategic significance of frontier regions.

Changes in Wazárats and Tahsils

Initially, the valley was divided into three wazárats with 15 tahsils, distributed as follows:

Later, the number of tahsils was reduced to 11, realigning administrative control:

These modifications aimed to enhance administrative efficiency while preserving historical divisions.

Population Trends in Kashmir

Kashmir’s population has fluctuated drastically due to factors such as oppression, natural disasters, and disease. In 1835, the valley's population was recorded at 200,000, a staggering decline from 800,000 just two decades earlier. This drastic depopulation was attributed to earthquakes, pestilence, and famine.

The first recorded census of Srinagar took place in 1868, though its accuracy was debated. The census reported a population of 112,715, with the following demographic distribution:

Land Classification and Agricultural Practices

The Kashmir Valley was an agrarian society, with its economy heavily dependent on irrigation-based agriculture. The three major wazárats—Khás, Anantnág, and Kámráj—, each with distinct land use patterns and irrigation networks ,collectively cover 1,194,555 acres, classified as follows:

Land Classification (in Acres)

Category	Khás Wazárat	Anantnág Wazárat	Kámráj Wazárat	Total
Total Area (Acres)	398,945	408,036	385,574	1,194,555
Not Available for Cultivation	134,487	150,025	127,554	412,069
Net Area Cropped During the Year	169,496	152,529	170,092	492,117

Irrigation Sources (in Acres)

Crops and Livestock in Kashmir

Kashmir has a diverse agricultural economy, with rice, wheat, maize, and orchard crops as key products.

Crops Grown (in Acres)

Category	Wazárat Khás	Wazárat Anantnág	Wazárat Kámráj	Total
Rice	60,708	75,260	44,384	180,352
Wheat	31,221	27,243	9,906	68,370
Barley	8,538	7,823	6,450	22,811
Maize	35,420	27,038	13,960	76,418
Other Food Grains (including pulses)	14,103	14,110	3,940	32,153
Linseed	12,653	6,560	2,272	21,485
Til or Gingelly	1,735	1,415	883	4,033
Other Oil Seeds	1,939	1,215	937	4,091
Cotton	7,584	7,275	1,630	16,489
Opium	51	40	—	91
Tobacco	78	132	85	295
Other Drugs and Narcotics	346	187	—	533
Orchard and Garden Produce	11,722	7,801	5,956	25,479
Total	172,883	154,536	171,023	498,147
Area Cropped More Than Once	3,092	2,007	931	6,030
Net Area Cropped During the Year	169,496	152,529	170,092	492,117

Livestock Population

Urban Development in 19th-Century Srinagar